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The book is written by Lauralee sherwood. There are seven editions of human physiology from cells to systems is published. The text is written according to the basic function of human body, so that a students can enjoying the learning. Most used book by undergraduate medical students preparing for health related careers. Human physiology pdf provide all the formal physiology text in a concise way. The text is designed to promote understanding the basic principles and concept of physiology rather than memorization of detail.
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More about the book read the features given below. Guytan and Hall physiology. Authors of the Bruce M. Koeppen and Bruce A. Seven editions is published so far. Although the external environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood streams.
Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate. The most common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.
Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue. Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities. Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body.
They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons. Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve impulses. Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific function.
For example: Respiratory system contains several organs. Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism. But once you have understood the basic word roots, combining word forms, prefixes and suffix you will find that anatomical terminologies are not as difficult as you first imagined. Anatomical Position. Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting points for positional references to the body.
In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and facing the observer, the feet are together, and the arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward.
Source: Carola, R. Relative means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body. The leg is supper to the foot. Inferior caudal Toward the feet. The foot is inferior to the leg. Anterior ventral Toward the front part of the body. The nose is anterior to the ears. Posterior dorsal Towards the back of the body.
The ears are posterior to the nose. Medial Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial to the eyes. Lateral Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to the nose. Proximal Toward nearer the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The shoulder is proximal to the wrist. Distal Away farther from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The wrist is distal to the forearm.
Superficial Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the heart. Deep Farther from the surface of the body.
The heart is deeper to the ribs. Peripheral Away from the central axis of the body. Peripheral nerves radiate away from the brain and spinal cord. Body parts Regions The body can generally be described to have areas of: Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax chest , abdomen, and pelvis. This includes the upper and lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in to four quadrants.
Figure 1. This helps for further identification of specific areas. Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section. Oblique plane: - divides the body obliquely into upper and lower section. The two main body cavities are the larger ventral anterior and the smaller, dorsal posterior body cavity. The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity. The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart.
It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum the portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung. Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder.
The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs. Figure: 1. When structure and function coordinated the body gets a relative stability. This phenomenon is called: a Anatomical integrity b Physiological stablity c Homeostasis d Hemostasis e Body stasis 3. Which of the following is not the correct description of anatomical position?
A plane that divided the body into anterior and posterior parts is: - a Medial plane b Coronal or frontal plane c Sagital plane d Transverse plane e Oblique plane 5.
Cytology: - It is a branch of science concerned with a study of cells Cell Theory explains about a All living organisms are composed of cell and cell products. Inclusions: they are the secretions and storage products of cells. Extra cellular materials are also referred to as the matrix, which are substances external to the cell surface. Figure: 2. It keeps the cell and its contents separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a double layered measuring about 4.
The bi-layer is self-sealing. If a needle is injected and pulled out, it automatically seals. Functions: - 1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid. Separate cell from one another 3. Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction can occur. Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells. It also let some things in and keeps others out. The quality selective permeability Movement across-cell membrane Movements a cross membrane takes place in two ways.
These are passive and active movements. Passive movement uses energy whereas active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP.
Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of high concentration to the area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid need protein channel to pass through the plasma membrane. No direct energy needed. Example: - Amino acid passes through the cell membrane. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to lower water concentration.
Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable membrane in response to force of pressure. Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine formation. Active movements across membranes Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of low concentration on side of a membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side. This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy. This process requires the use of ATP.
One example of such processes is Sodium — potassium pump and calcium pump. In this process all follows similar process. It includes: Pinocytoss — cell drinking Receptor — mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of receptor.
Phagocytosis- cell eating. It is thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and a series of minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton. It also contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic substances. The majority of organic substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are particles that remain suspended in the surrounding medium.
Contain the hereditary factor in the cell. Most cell contain single nucleus but some like matured Red Blood cell do not contain. However Muscle cell contain several nucleuses. The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double membrane called nuclear membrane. Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm. In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the nucleus is karylymph neucleoplasm , which contain the genetic material called chromosome.
Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound mass called nucleolus. It is continuous with the nuclear membrane. It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products are transported from one portion of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum.
So it is considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Endoplasmic reticulum ER is divided in to two. These are, granular E.
Containing granule and involving in synthesis of protein and agranular E. It consist membranous sacs. It generates energy. Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is smooth upper membrane and the other is arranged with series of folds called cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix. The lysosomal enzyme believed to be synthesized in the granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.
It also contains DNA that controls their replication. Centrosmes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking straws. They are Involved in the movement of chromosome during cell division.
When they are beating forms rhythmic movement. They are found in female reproductive organ and upper respiratory tube. Cancer cells are different. They lack the controlling mechanism.
Some of the risk factors for cancer occurrence are radiation, chemicals, extreme pressure and hormonal therapy. Diffusion b. Exocytosis c. Facilitated diffusion d.
Active transport e. Endocytosis 2 The most important structural elements of the cyto- skeleton are: - a. Microfilaments b. Vacuoles c. Ribosome d.
Asters e. Microtubules 3 Mitochondria functions in the synthesis of a. DNA b. MRNA c. ATP d. Is the site of ribosomal RNA synthesis b. Has a surrounding structure c. Contains ATP used in chromosome replication d.
It is smaller in secretary cell than in non-secretary. Specifies the chemical structure of enzymes. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Cilia c. Centrioles d. Flagella e. But in multicultural organisms, they do not function in isolation.
They work together in-group of similar cells called tissue. Tissue is a group of similar cell and their intercellular substance that have a similar embryological origin and function together to perform a specialized activity. A science that deals with the study of a tissue is Histology. These are epithelial, connective, muscular, and Nervous tissue. Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of layers and cell shape.
Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys, blood vessels and lymph vessels. It lines the gastro-intestinal tract gall bladder, excretory ducts of many glands. Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on presence of keratin. Non-Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is found in wet surface that are subjected to considerable wear and tear. Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina.
In Keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of material containing keratin. Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists friction and bacterial invasion. Its main function is secretion. It functions in protection and secretion.
Transitional epithelium The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and rounded rather than flat. The feature allows the tissue to be stretched with out breakage. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized epithelial cell. Glands can be classified into exocrine and endocrine according to where they release their secretion.
Their main products are mucous, oil, wax, perspiration and digestive enzyme. Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The secretions of endocrine glands are always hormones. Hormones are chemicals that regulate various physiological activities. Classification of exocrine glands They are classified by their structure and shape of the secretary portion.
Further more if the duct does not branch it is referred as a simple gland and if it branch's it is compound gland. Mesenchyme is the tissue from which all other connective tissue eventually arises. It is located beneath the skin and along the developing bone of the embryo. Adult connective tissue It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth. Found where there is loose connective tissue. It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface of the heart, in the marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints and behind the eye ball.
Exists in areas where tensions are exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven with out regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions. This occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone and membrane capsules. In other areas dense connective tissue adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel arrangement.
They stretch and snap back in to original shape. It also forms vocal cord. It helps to form a delicate supporting storma for many organs including liver, spleen and lymph nodes.
It also helps to bind together the fibers cells of smooth muscle tissue. It consists of a dense network of collagenous fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondriotin sulfate. The strength is because of collagenous fibers. The cells of a matured cartilage are called chondrocyte. The surface of a cartilage is surrounded by irregularly arranged dense connective tissue called perichondrium. Found at joints over long bones as articlar cartilage and forms costal cartilage at ventral end of ribs.
It also forms nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchial tubes. It forms embryonic skeleton, reinforce respiration, aids in free movement of joints and assists rib cage to move during breathing.
Fibro cartilage: they are found at the symphysis pubis, in the inter-vertebral discs and knee. It provides support and protection. Elastic cartilage: in elastic cartilage the chondrocyte are located in thread like network of elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage provides strength and elasticity and maintains the shape of certain organs like epiglottis, larynx, external part of the ear and Eustachian tube. The osseous tissue together with cartilage and joints it comprises the skeletal system.
It contains intercellular substance plasma. Plasma is a straw colored liquid, consists water and dissolved material. The formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The fibrous characteristics of a blood revealed when clotted. Classification of muscles is made by structure and function.
Muscle tissues are grouped in to skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue. It is involuntary and non-striated.
These are the neurons and the neuroglia. Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse. Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It contains 3 basic portions. These are cell body, axons and dendrites. Neuroglias are cells that protect, nourish and support neurons. Clinically they are important because they are potential to replicate and produce cancerous growths.
They line body cavities, cover surfaces, connect, or separate regions, structures and organs of the body. The three kinds of membranes are mucous, serous and synovial. It is an epithelial layer. Mucous membranes line the entire gastro intestine, respiratory excretory and reproductive tracts and constitute a lining layer of epithelium.
The connective tissue layer of mucous membrane is lamina propra. It lines body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior. Covers the organs that lie with in the cavity. Serosa is composed of parietal layer pertaining to be outer and visceral layer pertaining to be near to the organ. Pleura and pericardium are serous membrane that line thoracic and heart cavity respectively.
The epithelial layer of a serious membrane secret a lubricating fluid called serious fluid. The fluid allows organs to glide one another easily. Therefore, it is not epithelial membrane.
It lines the cavities of the freely movable joints. Like serious membrane it lines structures that do not open to the exterior. Synovial membranes secret synovial fluid that lubricate articular cartilage at the ends of bones as they move at joints. Unicellular glands composed of columnar cells that secrete mucous are known as:- a Cilia b Microvilli c Goblet cell d Endocrine glands e Basal cell 2.
A group of similar cell that has a similar embryological origin and operates together to perform a specialized activity is called:- a Organ b Tissue c System d Organ system e Organism 3.
Which of the following is involuntary and striated? Which tissue is characterized by the presence of cell bodies, dendrites and axons?
These include hair, nails, and several types of glands. The system functions in protection, in the regulation of body temperature, in the excretion of waste materials, in the synthesis of vitamin D3 with the help of sunrays, and in the reception of various stimuli perceived as pain, pressure and temperature.
Skin has 3 main parts. These are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that is made of stratified squamous epithelium. It has no blood supply. Epidermis contains strata. These are stratum cornium, lucidium, granulosum, spinosum and basale, Stratum cornium is the outer, dead, flat, Keratinized and thicker layer. Stratum lucidium is next to stratum cornium.
It consists of flat, translucent layers of cells. This stratum found in thick skin only. Stratum granulosum lies just below stratum lucidium. The cells in this layer are in the process of keratinization. The cells in this stratum have a poly-hydral shape and they are in the process of protein synthesis. Stratum basale rests on the basement membrane, and it is the last layer of epidermis next to stratum spinosum. Stratum basale together with stratum spinosum constitute stratum germinativum.
Most part of the skin is composed of dermis. Dermis contains papillary and reticular layers. Papillary layer is next to stratum basale of the epidermis. It contains loose connective tissue with in the bundles of collagenous fibers. It also contains loose capillaries that nourish the epidermis.
Indentations of papillary layer in the palms and soles reflected over the epidermis to create ridges. Reticular layer: next to papillary layer. It is made of dense connective tissue with course of collagenous fiber bundles that crisscross to form a storma of elastic network. In the reticular layer many blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, fat cell, sebaceous oil glands and hair roots are embedded. Hypoderms: it is found beneath the dermis. It is a subcutaneous layer under the skin.
Hypodermis is composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue, which is richly supplied with lymphatic and blood vessels and nerves. Hypodermis is much thicker than dermis. With in it coils of ducts of sudoriferous sweat glands, and the base of hair follicles.
Figure: 4. Protection: against harmful microorganisms, foreign material and it prevents excessive loss of body fluid. Temperature regulation: with the sweat, heat leaves the body 3. Excretion: Small amount of waste products from the body such as urea 4. Synthesis: By the action of UV. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin.
Vitamin D is necessary for absorption calcium from intestine. Sensory reception: it contains sensory receptors of heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
The presence of melanin a dark pigment produced by specialized cell called melanocyte 2. The accumulation of yellow pigment carotene. Eccrine glands are numerous over the palms and soles. Their secretary portion is embedded in the hypodermis. The sweat they secret is colorless, aqueous fluid containing neutral fats, albumin, urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride. Its excretion helps body temperature to be regulated.
Apocrine glands are odiferous, found at the armpits, in the dark region around nipples, the outer lips of the vulva, and the anal and genital regions. They are larger and deeply situate than eccrine sweet glands. An apocrine sweet gland becomes active at puberty. They respond to stress including sexual activity. The ceruminous glands in the outer ear canal are also apocrine skin glands. Their main functions are lubrication and protection. They are connected to hair follicles and secret oily secretion called sebum.
It is a semi fluid substance composed of entirely lipids. It functions as a permeability barrier, an emollient skin softening and a protective a gent against bacteria and fungi. This type of gland found all over the body except in the palms and soles. Acne vulgaris is a condition when there is over secretion of sebum, which may enlarge the gland and plug the pore.
Because it arises from the skin, it is considered an appendage of the skin. It covers the entire body except the palms, soles, lips, tip of penis, inner lips of vulva and nipples. Hair consist epithelial cell arranged in three layers from the inside out medulla, cortex and cuticle. The bulb is composed of the matrix of epithelial cells. The bulb pushes in ward along its bottom to form a papilla of blood rich connective tissue.
Part of the hair follicle is attached with the bundle of smooth muscle about halfway down the follicle. These are arrecter pili muscles. When it contracts in pulls the follicles and its hair to an erect position producing goose bump. Hair grows and when it finishes its growth sheds. The growth rate of hair depends on its position. Scalp hair grows 0. Hair sheds when it growth is complete. Just before a hair is to be shed, the matrix cell gradually become inactive and eventually dies.
They are made of hard keratin. Nails are composed of flat, cornified plates on the dorsal surface of the distal segment of the fingers and toe. The proximal part of nail is lunula, which is white in its color because of the capillaries underneath are covered by thick epithelium. Nail has body and root. The body is the exposed part and the root is hidden under the skin.
The nail ends with a free edge that overhangs the tip of the fingers. Epithelial layer covering underneath of the fore-hang nail is hyponychyem.
The nail rests on an epithelial layer of skin called nail bed. The thicker layer of skin beneath the nail root is the matrix, where new cells are generated.
Nail grows 0. Thin layers of epidermis called eponychium originally cover the growing nail. Our nail protects our fingers and toes. It also allows picking up and grasping objects as well we use them to scratch.
Which of the following skin layers undergoes cellular regeneration? Sudoriferous glands secret their secretion in response to: a Physiological process b Heat c Stress d Sexual experience e In all of the above condition 5. Hair covers all of the following parts of the body except: - a Sole b Face c Neck d Trunk.
It is strong yet light adapted for its function of body protection and motion. The skeletal system includes bones, joints, cartilages and ligaments. The joint give the body flexibility and allow movements to occur.
But from structural point of view, the human skeletal system consists of two main types of supportive connective tissue, bone and cartilage. Functions of the skeletal system: 1. Support: it forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs. Protection: bones protect soft body organs. Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system use the bone to levers to move the body and its part. Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of minerals.
Features: fully illustrated, clear and concise explanations. Navigate from table of contents or search for words and phrases. Add Bookmarks, text annotation, and mark-up. Human anatomy 5th edition free ebook online. Download ebook hole s essentials of human anatomy and physiology 13th ed pdf free download medical books.
Version 8. At the end of your study, you should be able Afifth edition of Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology is very gratifying, and Human anatomy Essentials Atlas of Human Anatomy : A Chapter 5: The IntegumentarySystem. Page 1.
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